Cognitive Behavior Modification: The Clinical Application of Cognitive Strategies

The past decade has witnessed the emergence of a cognitive-behavioral perspective in the field of clinical psychology. Basic to this perspective is a clearly delineated emphasis on cognitions as components of behavior change. The systematic use of cognitions to alter behavior, affect, and thoughts constitutes a class of strategies that have demonstrated their clinical utility. The application of cognitive strategies for therapeutic purposes is not new to the clinician. As Rosen and Orenstein (1976) note, the modification of cognitions for initiating behavior change can be traced back over a century to Lewis and the “art of controlling one’s thoughts” (Lewis, 1875).

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution to check access.

Access this chapter

Subscribe and save

• Get 10 units per month
• Download Article/Chapter or eBook
• 1 Unit = 1 Article or 1 Chapter
• Cancel anytime

Buy Now

eBook EUR 42.79 Price includes VAT (France)

Softcover Book EUR 52.74 Price includes VAT (France)

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Preview

Similar content being viewed by others

What Is Second Wave Behavior Therapy?

Cognitive Interventions

Cognitive Behavior Therapy at the Crossroads

Reference

1. Meichenbaum, D. H. Personal communication. December, 1981. Google Scholar
2. Brown, M. A set of eight parallel forms of the digit symbol test. Unpublished set of tests, University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada, 1969. Google Scholar
3. Coats, K. I., & Reynolds, W. M. A comparison of cognitive-behavioral and relaxation therapies for depression with adolescents. Unpublished manuscript, University of Wisconsin, 1982. Google Scholar
4. Reynolds, W. M. Development and validation of a scale to measure depression in adolescents. Unpublished manuscript, 1981. Google Scholar
5. Reynolds, W. M., & Coats, K. Depression in adolescents: Incidence, depth and correlates. Paper presented at the 10th International Congress of the International Association for Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, Dublin, Ireland, July 1982. Google Scholar

References

• Abraham, K. Selected papers of Karl Abraham. London: Hogarth Press, 1927. Google Scholar
• Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. P., & Teasdale, J. D. Learned helplessness in humans: Critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1978, 87, 49–74. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Alden, L., & Safran, J. Irrational beliefs and non-assertive behavior. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1978, 2, 357–364. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Alden, L., Safran, J., & Weideman, R. A comparison of cognitive and skills training strategies in the treatment of unassertive clients. Behavior Therapy, 1978, 9, 843–846. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Alpert, R., & Haber, R. Anxiety in academic achievement situations. Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology, 1960, 67, 207–215. Google Scholar
• Aitken, R. C. B. Measures of feeling using analogue scales. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Medicine, 1969, 62, 989–993. PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Aitken, R. C. B., & Zealley, A. K. Measurement of mood. British Journal of Hospital Medicine, 1970, 4, 214–224. Google Scholar
• Aponte, J. F., & Aponte, C. F. Group preprogrammed systematic desensitization without the simultaneous presentation of aversive scenes with relaxation training. Behavior Research and Therapy, 1971, 9, 337–346. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Bandura, A. Principles of behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1969. Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. Social learning theory. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1971. (a) Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. Vicarious self-reinforcement processes. In R. Glaser (Ed.), The nature of reinforcement. New York: Academic Press, 1971. (b) Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. Behavior theory and the models of man. American Psychologist, 1974, 29, 859–869. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Bandura, A. Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1977. (a) Google Scholar
• Bandura, A. Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 1917, 84, 191–215. (b) ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Bandura, A. The self-system in reciprocal determinism. American Psychologist, 1978, 33, 344–358. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Barrett, C. L. Systematic desensitization versus implosive therapy. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1969, 74, 587–592. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beck, A. T. Thinking and depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1963, 9, 324–333. PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Beck, A. T. Depression: Causes and treatment. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1967. Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T. Cognitive therapy: Nature and relation to behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy, 1970, 1, 184–200. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Beck, A. T. Cognitive therapy and the emotional disorders. New York: International Universities Press, 1976. Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Rush, A. J., Shaw, B. F., & Emery, G. Cognitive therapy of depression. New York: Guilford Press, 1979. Google Scholar
• Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J., & Erbaugh, J. An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1961, 4, 561–571. PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Becker, J., & Schuckit, M. The comparative efficacy of cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1978, 2, 193–197. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Beers, T. M., Jr., & Karoly, P. Cognitive strategies, expectancy, and coping style in the control of pain. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1979, 47, 179–180. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bellack, A. S., Hersen, M., & Himmelhoch, J. Social skills training compared with pharmacotherapy and psychotherapy in the treatment of unipolar depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1981, 138, 1562–1567. PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Bern, D. J. Self-perception theory. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 6). New York: Academic Press, 1972. Google Scholar
• Bibring, E. The mechanism of depression. In P. Greenacre (Ed.), Affective disorders. New York: International Universities Press, 1953. Google Scholar
• Blaney, P. H. The effectiveness of cognitive and behavioral therapies. In L. P. Rehm (Ed.), Behavior therapy for depression: Present status and future directions. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Google Scholar
• Bolles, R. C. Reinforcement, expectancy, and learning. Psychological Review, 1972, 79, 394–409. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Bruch, M. A. Type of cognitive modeling, imitation of modeled tactics, and modification of test anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1978, 2, 141–164. Google Scholar
• Burns, D., & Beck, A. Cognitive behavior modification of mood disorders. In J. Foreyt and D. Rathjen (Eds.), Cognitive behavior therapy: Research and application. New York: Plenum, 1978. Google Scholar
• Carmody, T. Rational-emotive, self-instructional, and behavioral assertion training: Facilitating maintenance. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1978, 2, 241–253. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Cautela, J. R. Treatment of compulsive behavior by covert sensitization. Psychological Record, 1966, 76, 33–41. Google Scholar
• Cautela, J. R. Covert sensitization. Psychological Reports, 1961, 20, 459–468. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Cautela, J. R. Covert negative reinforcement. Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 1970, 7, 273–278. (a) ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Cautela, J. R. Covert reinforcement. Behavior Therapy, 1970, 1, 33–50. (b) ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Cautela, J. R. Covert conditioning. In A. Jacobs and L. B. Sachs (Eds.), The psychology of private events: Perspectives on covert response systems. New York: Academic Press, 1971. Google Scholar
• Comas-Diaz, L. Effects of cognitive and behavioral group treatment on the depressive symptomatology of Puerto Rican women. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1981, 49, 627–632. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Craighead, W. E. A brief clinical history of cognitive-behavior therapy with children. School Psychology Review, 1982, 77(1), 5–13. Google Scholar
• Craighead, W. E., Meyers, A. W., Craighead, L. W., & McHale, S. M. Issues in cognitive behavior therapy with children. In M. Rosenbaum, C. M. Franks, & Y. Jaffe (Eds.), Perspectives on behavior therapy in the eighties. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1982. Google Scholar
• D’Alelio, W. A., & Murray, E. J. Cognitive therapy of test anxiety. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1981, 5, 299–308. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Dempsey, P. A. A unidimensional depression scale for the MMPI. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1964, 28, 364–370. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Derry, P., & Stone, G. Effects of cognitive-adjunct treatments on assertiveness. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1919, 3, 213–221. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• D’Zurilla, T. J., Wilson, G. B., & Nelson, R. A preliminary study of the effectiveness of graduated prolonged exposure in the treatment of irrational fear. Behavior Therapy, 1973, 4, 672–685. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ellis, A. Reason and emotion in psychotherapy. New York: Lyle Stuart, 1962. Google Scholar
• Ellis, A. The essence of rational psychotherapy: A comprehensive approach to treatment. New York: Institute for Rational Living, 1970. Google Scholar
• Ellis, A. The basic clinical theory of rational-emotive therapy. In A. Ellis and R. Grieger (Eds.), Handbook of rational-emotive therapy. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1977. (a) Google Scholar
• Ellis, A. Can we change thoughts by reinforcement: A reply to Howard Rachlin. Behavior Therapy, 1977, 8, 666–672. (b) ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ellis, A. Rational-emotive therapy and cognitive behavior therapy: Similarities and differences. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1980, 4, 325–340. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ellis, A., & Harper, R. A new guide to rational living. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1976. Google Scholar
• Endler, N., Hunt, J., & Rosenstein, A. An S-R Inventory of anxiousness. Psychological Monographs, 1962, 76(Whole No. 536). Google Scholar
• Eysenck, H. J. Behavior therapies and the philosophies. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1979, 17, 511–514. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Ferster, C. B. Classification of behavioral pathology. In L. Krasner and L. Ullmann (Eds.), Research in behavior modification. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1965. Google Scholar
• Ferster, C. B. A functional analysis of depression. American Psychologist, 1973, 28, 857–870. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fleming, B. M., & Thornton, D. W. Coping skills training as a component in the short-term treatment of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1980, 48, 652–654. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Fremouw, W. J., & Zitter, R. E. A comparison of skills training and cognitive restructuring-relaxation for the treatment of speech anxiety. Behavior Therapy, 1978, 9, 248–259. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Fuchs, C. Z. & Rehm, L. P. A self-control therapy program for depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1977, 45, 206–215. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Gardner, P., & Oei, T. P. S. Depression and self-esteem: An investigation that used behavioral and cognitive approaches to the treatment of clinically depressed clients. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 1981, 37, 128–135. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Glass, C. R., Gottman, J. M., & Shmurak, S. H. Response-acquisition and cognitive self-statement modification approaches to dating skills training. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1916, 23, 520–526. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Glogower, F. D., Fremouw, W. J., & McCroskey, J. C. A component analysis of cognitive restructuring. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1978, 2, 209–223. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Goldfried, M. R. Systematic desensitization as training in self-control. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1971, 37, 228–234. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goldfried, M. R. The use of relaxation and cognitive relabeling as coping skills. In R. B. Stuart (Ed.), Behavioral self-management: Strategies, techniques and outcomes. New York: Brunner/Mazel, 1977. Google Scholar
• Goldfried, M. R., & Davison, G. L. Clinical behavior therapy. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston. 1976. Google Scholar
• Goldfried, M. R., Decenteceo, E. T., & Weinberg, L. Systematic rational restructuring as a self-control technique. Behavior Therapy, 1974, 5, 247–254. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Goldfried, M., & Goldfried, A. Cognitive change methods. In F. H. Kanfer and A. P. Goldstein (Eds.), Helping people change: A textbook of methods. New York: Pergamon, 1975. Google Scholar
• Goldfried, M. R., & Goldfried, A. P. Importance of hierarchy content in the self-control of anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1977, 45, 124–134. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goldfried, M., Linehan, M. M., & Smith, J. C. Reduction of test anxiety through cognitive restructuring. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1978, 46, 32–39. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Goldfried, M. R., & Trier, C. Effectiveness of relaxation as an active coping skill. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1914, 83, 348–355. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Hamilton, M. A rating scale for depression. Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry, 1960, 23, 56–62. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hammen, C. L., Jacobs, M., Mayol, A., & Cochran, S. Dysfunctional cognitions and effectiveness of skills and cognitive-behavioral assertion training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1980, 48, 685–695. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Hollon, S. D. Comparisons and combinations with alternative approaches. In L. P. Rehm (Ed.), Behavior therapy for depression: Present status and future directions. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Google Scholar
• Holroyd, K. A. Cognition and desensitization in the group treatment of test anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1976, 44, 991–1001. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Husek, T., & Alexander, S. The effectiveness of the anxiety differential in examination stress situations. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 1963, 23, 309–318. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Jacobs, M. K., & Cochran, S. D. The effects of cognitive restructuring on assertive behavior. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1982, 6, 63–76. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Jones, R. G. A factored measure of Ellis’ irrational belief system, with personality and maladjustment correlates. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas Technological College, 1968. Google Scholar
• Kanfer, F. H. Self-regulation: Research, issues, and speculations. In C. Neuringer & J. L. Michael (Eds.), Behavior modification in clinical psychology. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, 1970. Google Scholar
• Kanfer, F. The maintenance of behavior by self-generated stimuli and reinforcement. In A. Jacobs & L. B. Sachs (Eds.), The psychology of private events: Perspectives on covert response systems. New York: Academic Press, 1971. Google Scholar
• Kanter, N. J., & Goldfried, M. R. Relative effectiveness of rational restructuring and self-control desensitization in the reduction of interpersonal anxiety. Behavior Therapy, 1979, 10, 472–490. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Kazdin, A. E. History of behavior modification: Experimental foundations of contemporary research. Baltimore: University Park Press, 1978. Google Scholar
• Kendall, P. C., & Braswell, L. Cognitive-behavioral self-control therapy for children: A components analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1982, 50, 672–689. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kendall, P. C., & Hollon, S. D. Cognitive-behavioral interventions: Overview and current status. In P. C. Kendall & S. D. Hollon (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral interventions: Theory, research, and procedures. New York: Academic Press, 1979. Google Scholar
• Kendall, P. C., Williams, L., Pechacek, T. F., Graham, L. E., Shisslak, C., & Herzoff, N. Cognitive-behavioral and patient education intervention in cardiac catheterization procedures: The Palo Alto Medical Psychology Project. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1919, 47, 49–58. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Kirschenbaum, D. S., & Ordman, A. M. Preventive interventions for children: Cognitive-behavioral perspectives. In A. W. Meyers & W. E. Craighead (Eds.), Cognitive behavior therapy for children. New York: Plenum, in press. Google Scholar
• Kovacs, M. Treating depressive disorders: The efficacy of behavior and cognitive therapies. Behavior Modification, 1919, 3, 496–517. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Kovacs, M. The efficacy of cognitive and behavior therapies for depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1980, 137, 1495–1501. PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Kovacs, M., Rush, A., Beck, A. T., & Hollon, S. D. Depressive outpatients treated with cognitive therapy or pharmacotherapy: A one year follow-up. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1981, 38, 33–39. PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Lazarus, A. A. Learning theory and the treatment of depression. Behavior Research and Therapy, 1968, 6, 83–89. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Lazarus, A. A. A critique of rational-emotive therapy. In A. Ellis & J. M. Whiteley (Eds.), Theoretical and empirical foundations of rational-emotive therapy. Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole, 1979. Google Scholar
• Ledwidge, B. Cognitive behavior modification: A step in the wrong direction? Psychological Bulletin, 1978, 55, 353–375. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ledwidge, B., Cognitive behavior modification: A rejoinder to Locke and to Meichenbaum. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1919, 3, 133–139. (a) ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ledwidge, B. Cognitive behavior modification or new ways to change minds: Reply to Mahoney and Kazdin. Psychological Bulletin, 1979, 86, 1050–1053. (b) ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Lewinsohn, P. M. A behavioral approach to depression. In R. J. Friedman & M. M. Katz (Eds.), The psychology of depression: Contemporary theory and research. New York: Wiley, 1974. Google Scholar
• Lewinsohn, P. M., Weinstein, M. S., & Shaw, D. A. Depression: A clinical-research approach. In R. D. Rubin & C. M. Franks (Eds.), Advances in behavior therapy: 1968. New York: Academic Press, 1969. Google Scholar
• Lewinsohn, P. M., Youngren, M. A., & Grosscup, S. J. Reinforcement and depression. In R. A. Depue (Ed.), The psychobiology of the depressive disorders: Implications for the effects of stress. New York: Academic Press, 1979. Google Scholar
• Lewis, D. Chastity; or our secret sins. Philadelphia: Maclean, 1875. Google Scholar
• Liebert, R., & Morris, L. Cognitive and emotional components of test anxiety: A distinction and some initial data. Psychological Reports, 1967, 20, 975–978. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Linehan, M., Goldfried, M., & Goldfried, A. Assertion therapy: Skill training or cognitive restructuring. Behavior Therapy, 1919, 10, 372–388. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Lloyd, J. Academic instruction and cognitive behavior modification: The need for attack strategy training. Exceptional Education Quarterly, 1980, 1, 53–64. Google Scholar
• Locke, E. A. Behavior modification is not cognitive and other myths: A reply to Ledwidge. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1979, 3, 119–126. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Maddison, D., & Duncan, G. (Eds.) Aspects of depressive illness. Edinburgh: Livingston, 1965. Google Scholar
• Mahoney, M. J. Research issues in self-management. Behavior Therapy, 1972, 3, 45–63. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Mahoney, M. J. Cognition and behavior modification. Cambridge, MA: Ballinger, 1974. Google Scholar
• Mahoney, M. J. Reflections on the cognitive-learning trend in psychology. American Psychologist, 1911, 32, 5–13. (a) ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Mahoney, M. J. On the continuing resistance to thoughtful therapy. Behavior Therapy, 1911, 8, 611–613. (b) Google Scholar
• Mahoney, M. J. A critical analysis of rational-emotive theory and therapy. The Counseling Psychologist, 1977, 7, 44–46. (c) ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Mahoney, M. J., & Arnkoff, D. Cognitive and self-control therapies. In S. L. Garfield & A. E. Bergin (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behavior change (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley, 1978. Google Scholar
• Mahoney, M. J., & Kazdin, A. E. Cognitive behavior modification: Misconceptions and premature evacuation. Psychological Bulletin, 1979, 86, 1044–1049. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Malkiewich, L., & Merluzzi, T. Rational restructuring versus desensitization with clients of diverse conceptual levels: A test of a client-treatment matching model. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1980, 27, 453–461. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Mandel, N. M., & Shrauger, J. S. The effects of self-evaluative statements on heterosocial approach in shy and nonshy males. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1980, 4, 369–381. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• McCroskey, J. Measures of communication-bound anxiety. Speech Monographs, 1910, 37, 269–277. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• McGlynn, F. D. Graded imagination and relaxation as components of experimental desensitization. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1973, 156, 377–385. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• McLean, P. D., & Hakstian, A. R. Clinical depression: Comparative efficacy of outpatient treatments. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1979, 49, 818–836. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D. Cognitive modification of test anxious college students. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1972, 39, 370–380. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D. Cognitive behavior modification. Morristown, NJ: General Learning Press, 1974. Google Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D. Dr. Ellis, please stand up. The Counseling Psychologist, 1977, 7, 43–44. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D. H. Cognitive-behavior modification. New York: Plenum, 1977. Google Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D. Cognitive behavior modification: The need for a fairer assessment. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1979, 3, 127–132. (b) ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D., & Asarnow, J. Cognitive-behavioral modification and metacogni-tive development; Implications for the classroom. In P. Kendall & S. Hollon (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral interventions: Theory, research, and procedures. New York: Academic Press, 1979. Google Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D., & Butler, L. Toward a conceptual model for the treatment of test anxiety: Implications for research and treatment. In I. Sarason (Ed.), Test anxiety: Theory, research, and applications. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum, 1980. Google Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D., & Butler, L. Cognitive ethology: Assessing the streams of cognition and emotion. In K. Blankstein, P. Pliner, & J. Polivy (Eds.), Advances in the study of communication and affect: Assessment and modification of emotional behavior (Vol. 6). New York: Plenum, 1981. Google Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D. H., & Cameron, R. Training schizophrenics to talk to themselves: A means of developing attentional controls. Behavior Therapy, 1913, 4, 515-534. Google Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D. H., & Cameron, R. The clinical potential of modifying what clients say to themselves. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 1974, 11, 103–117. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D., & Genest, M. Cognitive behavioral modification: An integration of cognitive and behavioral methods. In F. Kanfer & A. Goldstein (Eds.), Helping people change (2nd ed.). New York: Pergamon, 1980. Google Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D., Gilmore, J., & Fedoravicius, A. Group insight vs. group desensiti-zation in treating speech anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1971, 36, 410–421. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meichenbaum, D. H., & Goodman, J. Training impulsive children to talk to themselves: A means of developing self-control. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1971, 77, 115–126. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Meyers, A. W., & Craighead, W. E. (Eds.). Cognitive behavior therapy for children. New York: Plenum, in press. Google Scholar
• Morris, J. B., & Beck, A. T. The efficacy of antidepressant drugs: A review of research (1958-1972). Archives of General Psychiatry, 1974, 30, 614–661. Google Scholar
• Morris, L., & Liebert, R. Effects of anxiety on timed and untimed intelligence tests. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1969, 33, 240–244. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Novaco, R. W. Treatment of chronic anger through cognitive and relaxation controls. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1976, 44, 681. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Novaco, R. W. Stress inoculation: A cognitive therapy for anger and its application to a case of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1977, 45, 600–608. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Novaco, R. W. Anger and coping with stress: Cognitive behavioral interventions. In J. Foreyt & D. Rathjen (Eds.), Cognitive behavior therapy: Research and application. New York: Plenum, 1978. Google Scholar
• Oliver, R. The “empty nest syndrome” as a focus of depression: A cognitive treatment model based on rational emotive therapy. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research and Practice, 1911, 14, 87–94. Google Scholar
• Paul, G., & Shannon, D. Treatment of anxiety through systematic desensitization in therapy groups. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1966, 77, 124–135. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Paul, G. L. Insight vs. desensitization in psychotherapy: An experiment in anxiety reduction. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press, 1966. Google Scholar
• Petti, T. A. Depression in hospitalized child psychiatry patients: Approaches to measuring depression. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 1978, 17, 49–59. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rachlin, H. Reinforcing and punishing thoughts. Behavior Therapy, 1911, 8, 659–665. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Raimy, V. Misunderstandings of the self. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1975. Google Scholar
• Raskin, A., Schulterbrandt, J. G., Reatig, N., & McKeon, J. J. Replication of factors of psychopathology in interview, ward behavior, and self-ratings of hospitalized depressives. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 1969, 148, 87–98. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Rathjen, D., Rathjen, E., & Hiniker, A. A cognitive analysis of social performance: Implications for assessment and treatment. In J. Foreyt & D. Rathjen (Eds.), Cognitive behavior therapy: Research and application. New York: Plenum, 1978. Google Scholar
• Raven, J. Guide to using progressive matrices. London: H. E. Lewis Press, 1956. Google Scholar
• Rehm, L. P. A self-control model of depression. Behavior Therapy, 1911, 8, 787–804. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rehm, L. P., Fuchs, C. Z., Roth, D. M., Kornblith, S. J., & Romano, J. M. A comparison of self-control and assertion skills treatments of depression. Behavior Therapy, 1919, 10, 429–442. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rosen, G. M., & Orenstein, H. A historical note on thought stopping. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1916, 44, 1016–1017. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Roth, D., Bielski, R., Jones, M., Parker, W., & Osborn, G. A comparison of self-control therapy and combined self-control therapy and antidepressant medication in the treatment of depression. Behavior Therapy, 1982, 13, 133–144. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rush, A. J., Beck, A. T., Kovacs, M., & Hollon, S. Comparative efficacy of cognitive therapy and pharmacotherapy in the treatment of depressed outpatients. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1977, 1, 17–37. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rush, A. J., & Giles, D. E. Cognitive therapy: Theory and research. In A. J. Rush (Ed.), Short-term psychotherapies for depression: Behavioral, interpersonal, cognitive, and psycho dynamic approaches. New York: Guilford Press, 1982. Google Scholar
• Rush, A. J., Hollon, S. D., Beck, A. T., & Kovacs, M. Depression: Must pharmacotherapy fail for cognitive therapy to succeed? Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1978, 2, 199–206. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rush, A. J., Khatami, M., & Beck, A. T. Cognitive and behavior therapy in chronic depression. Behavior Therapy, 1975, 6, 398–404. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Rush, A. J., & Watkins, J. T. Group versus individual cognitive therapy: A pilot study. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1981, 5, 95–103. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Ryan, E. B. Identifying and remediating failures in reading comprehension: Toward an instructional approach for poor comprehension. In T. G. Waller & G. E. MacKinnon (Eds.), Advances in reading research (Vol. 2). New York: Academic Press, 1981. Google Scholar
• Schildkraut, J. J. The catecholamine hypothesis of affective disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1965, 122, 509–522. PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Schuyler, D. The depressive spectrum. New York: Aronson, 1974. Google Scholar
• Seligman, M. E. P. Helplessness. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman, 1975. Google Scholar
• Seligman, M. E. P. A learned helplessness point of view. In L. P. Rehm (Ed.), Behavior therapy for depression: Present status and future directions. New York: Academic Press, 1981. Google Scholar
• Shaw, B. F. Comparison of cognitive therapy and behavior therapy in the treatment of depression. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1977, 45, 543–551. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Shaw, B. F., & Beck, A. T. The treatment of depression with cognitive therapy. In A. Ellis & R. Grieger (Eds.), Handbook of rational-emotive therapy. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1977. Google Scholar
• Spiegler, M. D., Cooley, E. J., Marshall, G. J., Prince, H. T., & Puckett, S. P. A self-control versus a counter-conditioning paradigm for systematic desensitization: An experimental comparison. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 1976, 23, 83–86. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Spielberger, C., Gorsuch, R., & Lushene, R. Manual for the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory. Palo Alto, CA: Consulting Psychologist Press, 1970. Google Scholar
• Suinn, R. The STABS, a measure of test anxiety for behavior therapy: Normative data. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 1969, 7, 335–339. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Sundberg, N. D., Snowden, L. R., & Reynolds, W. M. Toward assessment of personal competence and incompetence in life situations. In M. R. Rosenzweig & L. W. Porter (Eds.), Annual review of psychology (Vol. 29). Palo Alto, Calif.: Annual Reviews Inc., 1978. Google Scholar
• Sundberg, N. D., Tyler, L. E., & Taplin, J. R. Clinical psychology; Expanding horizons (2nd ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1973. Google Scholar
• Taylor, F. G., & Marshall, W. L. Experimental analysis of a cognitive-behavioral therapy for depression. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 1917, 1, 59–72. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Thoresen, C. E., & Mahoney, M. J. Behavioral self-control. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1974. Google Scholar
• Thorpe, G. L. Desensitization, behavioral rehearsal, self-instructional training and placebo effects on assertive-refusal behavior. European Journal of Behavioral Analysis and Modification, 1915, 1, 30–44. Google Scholar
• Thorpe, G. L., Amatu, H. L, Blakey, R. S., & Burns, L. E. Contributions of overt instructional rehearsal and “specific insight” to the effectiveness of self-instructional training: A preliminary study. Behavior Therapy, 1976, 7, 504–511. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Trexler, L. D., & Karst, T. O. Rational-emotive therapy, placebo, and no-treatment effects on public-speaking anxiety. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1972, 79, 60–67. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Turk, D. C. Cognitive behavioral techniques in the management of pain. In J. P. Foreyt & D. P. Rathjen (Eds.), Cognitive behavior therapy: Research and application. New York: Plenum, 1978. Google Scholar
• Turk, D. C., & Genest, M. Regulation of pain: The application of cognitive and behavioral techniques for prevention and remediation. In P. C. Kendall & S. D. Hollon (Eds.), Cognitive-behavioral interventions: Theory, research, and procedures. New York: Academic Press, 1979. Google Scholar
• Ullman, L. P. On cognitions and behavior therapy. Behavior Therapy, 1970, 1, 201–204. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Watson, D., & Friend, R. Measurement of social evaluative anxiety. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1969, 33, 448–457. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wein, K. S., Nelson, R. O., & Odom, J. V. The relative contributions of reattribu-tion and verbal extinction to the effectiveness of cognitive restructuring. Behavior Therapy, 1975, 5, 459–474. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Weissberg, M. A comparison of direct and vicarious treatments of speech anxiety: Desensitization, desensitization with coping imagery, and cognitive modification. Behavior Therapy, 1977, 8, 606–620. ArticleGoogle Scholar
• Weissman, A. N. The Dysfunctional Attitude Scale: A validation study (Doctoral dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1919). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1979, 40, 1389B–1390B. (University Microfilms No. 79-19533) Google Scholar
• Weissman, M. M., Klerman, G. L., Prusoff, B. A., Sholomskas, D., & Padian, N. Depressed outpatients: Results one year after treatment with drugs and/or interpersonal psychotherapy. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1981, 38, 51–55. PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Weissman, M. M., Prusoff, B. A., DiMascio, A., Neu, C, Goklaney, M., & Klerman, G. L. The efficacy of drugs and psychotherapy in the treatment of acute depressive episodes. American Journal of Psychiatry, 1979, 136, 555–558. PubMedGoogle Scholar
• Wilson, G. T. Cognitive behavior therapy: Paradigm shift or passing phase? In J. P. Foreyt & D. P. Rathjen (Eds.), Cognitive behavior therapy: Research and application. New York: Plenum, 1978. Google Scholar
• Wolpe, J. Psychotherapy by reciprocal inhibition. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1958. Google Scholar
• Wolpe, J. Neurotic depression: Experimental analog, clinical syndromes and treatment. A merican Journal of Psychotherapy, 1971, 25, 362–368. Google Scholar
• Wolpe, J. Cognition and causation in human behavior and its therapy. American Psychologist, 1978, 33, 437–446. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Young, J. E., & Beck, A. T. Cognitive therapy: Clinical applications. In A. J. Rush (Ed.), Short-term psychotherapies for depression: Behavioral interpersonal, cognitive, and psychodynamic approaches. New York: Guilford Press, 1982. Google Scholar
• Zeiss, A. M., Lewinsohn, P. M., & Mimoz, R. F. Nonspecific improvement effects in depression using interpersonal skills training, pleasant activity schedules, or cognitive training. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 1979, 47, 427–439. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zuckerman, M. The development of an affect adjective check list for the measurement of anxiety. Journal of Consulting Psychology, 1960, 24, 457–462. ArticlePubMedGoogle Scholar
• Zung, W. W. K. A self-rating depression scale. Archives of General Psychiatry, 1965, 12, 63–70. PubMedGoogle Scholar

1. William M. Reynolds